African

Introduction The African-American cultural group can be described with the help of such criteria as environmental control, biological variations, social organization, communication, space, and time orientation. These factors affect the provision of healthcare services to African Americans. They determine the effectiveness of the American healthcare system among different ethnic groups.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on African-American Cultural Group specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Environmental control Some African Americans exercise environmental control by adhering to their beliefs and cultural practices. In turn, the individuals, who believe in traditional medicine, are suspicious of modern treatment methods (Dayer, 2010). Therefore, more representatives of this group may seek the services of folk healers before seeking modern medical remedies. This practice is imbedded in many traditions that they still obse rve today. Moreover, they mistrust the American healthcare system due to the effect of the Tuskegee syphilis study and other violations of their civil rights. Biological variations The studies have revealed that genetic makeup, enzymatic variations, and susceptibility to diseases are the main reasons for prevalence of certain diseases among African Americans. These diseases include cancer, asthma, coccidioidomycosis, lactose intolerance, and sickle cell anemia (Dayer, 2010). For example, the HbSS genotype passed on from parents to offsprings causes sickle cell anemia. The prevalence of the disease is between 8 and 10 percent (Spector, 2004). Additionaly, genetic variations determine the extent to which environmental factors and socioeconomic constructs affect the health of African Americans. Social organization African Americans attach importance to family and religion. For example, they treasure extended families, community organizations, and religious communion. Since the days of slavery, African Americans have maintained strong social ties in order to retain the sense of community and belonging (Spector, 2004). For example, slaves used spiritual symbolism to give hope for freedom. This tendency has led to strong church affiliations that are still present today. Moreover, religious and social groups were important for addressing social, political, and economic challenges faced by this group (Dayer, 2010). Communication The description of communication style is valid because African Americans use different languages and dialects. They emerged during the days of slavery. Apart from English, one can distinguish French and Spanish. Distinct language patterns emerged during the period of slavery when black people had to learn new languages in order to communicate with one another (Spector, 2004). Slave owners discouraged the communication between people who spoke the same language because this interaction could have led to rebellions. This separation contributed to the development of dialects such as pidgin and Creole (Spector, 2004). Moreover, African Americans rely on non-verbal communication. For example, they discourage direct eye contact in certain situations and use silence to express anger and dissatisfaction. Personal space I agree with the description of African Americans’ approach to personal space because it is determined by their social nature. They are not very sensitive to the concept of personal space because they are used to working together and taking care of each other. It should be mentioned that many African Americans encourage eye contact. However, they accept body contact (Spector, 2004).Advertising Looking for report on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Time orientation African Americans are described as having present time orientation, and I agree with this argument. These people are more concerned with the present, rather than the future . African Americans are inclined towards dealing with events and challenges that are related to the most immediate future. Therefore, they consider appointments and many other activities as flexible and elastic (Spector, 2004). This attribute distinguishes them from other cultural groups. How deeply I identify with the heritage I identify strongly with the African-American ethno-cultural heritage. I attach importance to such values as strong social and religious affiliations, open communication styles, distinct language patterns, and emphasis on present time orientation. In addition, I am of African-American origin. Several health beliefs are included in the cultural heritage of this group. They include the power of folk medicine, healing effects of herbs, healing powers of root and herb doctors, and the ability of spiritual healers to ward off evil and illnesses. Reference List Dayer, L. (2010). Cultural Competencies for Nurses: Impact on Health and Illness. New York, NY: Jones Ba rtlett Learning. Spector, R. (2004). Cultural Diversity in Health and Illness. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. This report on African-American Cultural Group was written and submitted by user Hazel Galloway to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. African Table of Contents Introduction Existence of Math Performance Gap Causes and Explanation of Math Performance Gap Conclusion Works Cited Introduction The belief that Black students have worse performance in math in comparison with their White classmates has taken root among teachers, students, curriculum developers and researchers.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on African-American Students and Mathematics Achievement Gap: Stereotype or Reality? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is possible to assume that it rises from the first years of the â€Å"post- Brown v. Board of Education case† period when the â€Å"separate but equal† doctrine and segregation in education were declared unconstitutional (Martin 121), and when Black and White students began to learn together. Today many pedagogues have accepted this statement as given and adapt their teaching activity to it. Nevertheless, today th e question of Black students’ poor achievement in mathematics remains burning: understanding its validity and, if it is valid, its essence and source is very important, as it may give teachers valuable background for developing appropriate approach to teaching Black students. Besides, this knowledge may be valuable for Black students themselves to enhance their self-efficacy. The purpose of this research is to find whether there is the evidence of the math performance gap between Black and White students and, if we find that it exists, to throw ling upon its origin. There are several hypotheses that we need to check: The mathematics performance gap between Black and White students exists. The existing gap between Black and White students is caused by cultural or cognitive peculiarities of Black students’ thinking and learning. The existing gap between Black and White students is caused by Black students’ low motivation to studying mathematics. The existing gap between Black and White students is caused or aggravated by the commonly accepted negative stereotype. The existing gap is caused or aggravated by some other factors. We will observe sources devoted to the topic of our research and test these hypotheses. Existence of Math Performance Gap Several studies corroborate the statement about existence of the math performance gap between Black and White students; quantitative evaluation of their performance had been carried out for several decades. According to Rothman, the gap has reduced substantially during the 1970s-80s, but in the late 80s, the progress â€Å"stalled† (cited in United States Commission on Civil Rights 9). In 2000, the gap still existed: while about 40 per cent of white 4th grade students’ math performance was at or above proficient, only 5 per cent of Black students performed at the same level (10). Moreover, Fuetsch and Ware (in Hayman and Ware 307) state that during the investigation carried out betwee n 1995 and 2004, each year the gap was bigger than in the beginning of the observation at least in one of the observed grades.Advertising Looking for research paper on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More We may also allude to the fresher data on the discussed problem. According to the results of the 2006 investigation of school students’ tests results presented in (Anderson), Black students were 41 points behind non-Hispanic students. Paige and Witty (35) state that in 2007, the difference between a number of White and Black fourth graders who performed at or above the proficient level was 51 per cent White versus 15 per cent Black; in the eighth grade, 82 per cent of White students performed at or above the basic level versus 47 per cent of Black students. Besides, the investigation in (Anderson) demonstrated that there is no strong correlation between age and performance in math: the gap varied in different gra des. Finally, the gap in math was bigger than that in other subjects, which makes studying of math achievement gap apart from gaps in other subjects reasonable. This gives us opportunity to state that there are certain factors beyond ethnicity itself and students’ age that impacts Black students’ performance in math. Some suggestions on these factors were expressed in the hypotheses formulated in the introduction. We will discuss them in the next chapter. Causes and Explanation of Math Performance Gap First of all, it is necessary to mark that today there is no single answer to the question on causes of the math performance gap. The range of opinions lies in different dimensions, even in such as ideological, racial and political. As for the scientific research, the given issue is mostly studied from sociocultural, socioeconomic, pedagogical and genetic perspective (Paige and Witty 59). One of the existing theories is the â€Å"socioeconomic disparities† (60). Ac cording to this theory, the long period of slavery impacted Black citizens’ performance in math. Black people had no opportunity to study for centuries, and the consequence of this situation is today’s achievement gap. Paige and Witty state that the difference in â€Å"parenting† skills between parents of different social classes and professions has been corroborated by several researches (61). However, not only past conditions are considered to impact Black students’ math performance. According to August 2000 NAEP report (in United States Commission on Civil Rights 10), the math achievement gap has connection with students’ current social condition: economically disadvantaged students perform poorer.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on African-American Students and Mathematics Achievement Gap: Stereotype or Reality? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Another significant que stion to discuss is Black students’ motivation to studying math. Significant investigation was carried out by Rech (1994 212-220): the researcher found that the attitudes of Black students, even those having high performance at school, are poorer than those of White students. Rech argues that Black students demonstrate anxiety towards mathematics and have doubts about importance of learning it. To some extent, this can be linked with the â€Å"socioeconomic disparities† theory: analogically to parenting skills, parenting behavior also takes place in families (Paige and Witty 60). Thus, it is possible to state that Black students have low motivation to studying math. This should be considered by math teachers, as studying mathematics is important for students’ career prospects. Wilkens (in Irons 340) states that this problem has now been taking shape in our society; to get prestigious high-paid jobs, Black students who are the future employees should acquire nece ssary background and skills in math. Negative stereotypes and emotional environment also prove to be the factors that aggravate the math achievement gap. Haynes, Ben-Avie and Ensign (94) state that emotional environment is one of the strongest factors that impact Black students’ performance in math. They emphasize that in many cases teachers have prejudice about Black students’ math skills and expect them to fail, which actually influences their performance. This statement is confirmed by the research carried out by Rydell, McConnell and Beilock (949-966): when Black students were reminded about negative stereotyping about their performance in math, they began to actually perform worse. The research by Schweinle and Mims (501-514) also showed that Black students have lower math self-efficacy. Thus, there is one more point to consider for math teachers who work with Black students: motivation and self-efficacy in math are the issues that require working on beyond improv ing math skills themselves, and it is important to struggle against negative stereotypes and anxiety to cope with this task. Finally, one more assumption about gap in mathematics achievements is that there is certain inherent cognitive difference between Black and White students that is caused by race. Finding the answer to this question is a very difficult task, as studying cognition is much more complicated than studying motivation and attitude.Advertising Looking for research paper on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thus, despite a series of researches have been fulfilled, there is still no universal opinion on this issue. In (Cwikla 3), we see the comparative histogram of performance of students of different race in regards with different aspects of studying math. White, Black, Hispanic, Asian and other students are compared in being good at measurement, geometry, number sense, probability and statistics, and algebra. The histogram does not provide clear answer to the question. On the one hand, the author emphasizes that the absolute difference between White and Black students varies in different areas, which may be interpreted as the evidence of cognitive difference between students of different races. The research results demonstrate that Black, Hispanic and White students had their best performance in algebra, Asian students performed the best in geometry (9). On the other hand, we may notice that despite the absolute difference varies, the general trend is quite neat: Asian and White stude nts have the best performance in all areas; other students have the third place; Hispanic students have the fourth place, and Black students the fifth; exception is probability and statistics where the performance of Hispanic and Black students are quite high and almost equal; besides, there is slight difference in algebra performance. Thus, the difference in performance in different areas exists, but is seems somewhat blurred. One more point that should be considered is that there is the difference between the notions â€Å"cause† and â€Å"influence†. Despite we have outlined several factors that prove to impact Black students’ performance in math, it is difficult to state whether they cause the math performance gap or just aggravate it. Answering this question requires further study. Besides, it is important to take into account that these factors may be connected and influence each other. For example, if the factor of heredity exists in regards with math ski lls, low motivation may be also â€Å"inherited†; negative stereotypes may impact math self-efficacy and thus cause anxiety; finally, social environment may â€Å"persuade† economically disadvantaged Black students that they have no opportunity to get high position and well-paid job and that there is anyway no need to learn math. Conclusion Having observed the sources devoted to the gap in math performance between Black and White students, we can make the following conclusions: The gap in math performance between White and Black students exists. The gap in math performance is bigger than the gap in performance in other subjects. Despite after elimination of racial segregation in education the gap was reducing quite rapidly, today this reduction has almost stalled. Several approaches to explaining the gap in performance in math exist, and no one of them has been recognized the only correct. There is the evidence that math skills and math behavior are â€Å"parentedâ⠂¬  in families. Black students have low motivation and strong anxiety towards math. Negative stereotypes influence Black students’ math self-efficacy and performance in math. The question of inherent cognitive difference between Black and White students remains open. The points discussed above should be considered by school teachers, as, regardless of causes and factors of the gap in math performance, their task is to make this gap as small as possible. Works Cited Anderson, Nick. â€Å"Performance Gap on Tests Uneven for Black Students.† Washington Post. 22 June 2006. Web. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/21/AR2006062101829.html Cwikla, Julie. â€Å"Differential Mathematics Performance on the TIMSS-R across Delaware Students of Color.† Triangle Coalition. PDF File. Web. Hayman, Robert L., and Leland Ware. Choosing Equality: Essays and Narratives on the Desegregation Experience. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University P ress, 2009. Print. Irons, Peter H. Jim Crown’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision. New York: Viking, 2002. Print. Martin, Waldo E. Brown v. Board of Education: A Brief History with Documents. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1998. Print. Paige, Rod, and Elaine P. Witty. The Black-White Achievement Gap: Why Closing It Is the Greatest Civil Right Issue of Our Time. New York, NY: AMACOM, American Management Association, 2010. Print. Rech, Janice F. â€Å"A Comparison of the Mathematics Attitudes of Black Students According to Grade Level, Gender, and Academic Achievement.† Journal of Negro Education 63(2) (1994): 212-220. Print. Rydell, Robert J., Allen R. McConnell, and Sian L. Beilock. â€Å"Multiple Social Identities and Stereotype Threat: Imbalance, Accessibility, and Working Memory.† Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96(5) (2009): 949-966. Print. United States Commission on Civil Rights. Office of the General Counsel. Closing the Achievement Gap: The Impact of Standards-Based Education Reform on Student Performance: Draft Report for Commissioners’ Review. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Office of the General Counsel, 2004. Print. Schweinle, Amy, and Grace A. Mims. â€Å"Mathematics Self-Efficacy: Stereotype Threat Versus Resilience.† Social Psychology of Education 12(4) (2009): 501-514. Print. This research paper on African-American Students and Mathematics Achievement Gap: Stereotype or Reality? was written and submitted by user Carmen Martinez to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. African Table of Contents Historical background Adversaries of the African-Americans in 1960s Stopping segregation when going to school Woolworth story Right to vote Conclusion Works Cited African-Americans in the 1960s faced segregation, discrimination and stereotyping from their white counterparts. The African-Americans were discriminated based on their race, color, origin, religion and creed. Therefore, they were excluded from many activities of the country.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on African-Americans in the 1960s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The segregation included access to certain schools, waiting for long before being served and denial of voting rights. However, amidst these forms of discrimination, African- American movements emerged that demanded for equality and fair treatment of all the citizens. Historical background 1960s witnessed emergences of many African-led movements, which had a sole obj ective of fighting discrimination. African-American civil rights movement (1965-1968) was a movement aimed at fighting racial discrimination against the African- Americans. It was also constituted to restore voting rights to the African-Americans (Digital rights para. 3). Black power movement was another movement that emerged in 1966, which aimed at promoting civil rights including racial dignity, political self-sufficiency, economic and freedom from oppression from the whites (Murphiee 13). These movements, through rallies, lobbied for civil disobedience and non violent protest that helped them in raising their concerns to the federal and state government. These protests bore fruits as legislations were changed to accommodate the rights of the African-Americans. For instance, civil rights act of 1964 banned any form of discrimination based on religion, color, race, employment practices, national origin and public accommodation. Furthermore, the voting right act of 1965 restored and protected the voting rights of the African-Americans. Many other acts and rights were enacted to ensure that all citizens were granted equal opportunity and fair treatment. Adversaries of the African-Americans in 1960s African-Americans went through difficulties in the 1960s. Because of the harsh treatment, their lifespan was seven years less compared to the whites. The children of African blacks had half chances of completing their schools successfully. Only, a third of the students had a chance of completing college while only a third had a chance to join a profession body.Advertising Looking for essay on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This discrimination impacted negatively on the progress of African-Americans. Furthermore, the African-Americans earned half as much as whites and their chances of securing a job were very minimal. In addition, the voting rights of African-Americans were limited, as this fr eedom was denied to them (Murphiee 13). Other forms of oppression were evident in the granting of opportunities and even in providing services or any other assistance. An African-American was always served after all the whites were served. This preferential treatment demonstrated the highest level of inhumanity and discrimination. Stopping segregation when going to school In 1960s, attending school was a privilege that was given to white children. African-Americans were segregated as their children could not be admitted to certain schools that were a preserve of the whites. Many African blacks were viewed as second class citizens and they were not given an equal opportunity to enroll in good schools. Even after the Brown v. Board of education decision, only 49 schools desegregated and only 1.2 African-American children in 11 states attended class with the whites (Digital rights para. 6). Therefore, this demonstrated the disparities and the level of segregation that the whites showed to their African-American counterparts. In parts of the 1960, civil activist such as Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr spoke of these injustices and demanded the government to accord equal rights to all of its citizens without discriminating against race or skin color. Woolworth story Discrimination was evident in the whites against the African blacks through different spheres of interactions and relations. On February 1, 1960, four African-Americans, Blair, Franklin, Joseph and David walked into the Wool worth stores in North Carolina agricultural and technical college. When they requested for a cup of coffee, a white waitress demanded them to stand before they could be served (Digital rights para. 4). The notion behind standing is the formed perception and stereotyping of the African-Americans. This episode demonstrated the harsh realities of racial discrimination that African blacks went through as citizens of United States in 1960s. To demonstrate their anger and dissatisfaction on the way they were treated, the four men stayed at their seats until the lunch counter closed leading to sit-in protests.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on African-Americans in the 1960s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The four men rallied support and the following day 25 colleges appeared at the restaurant. The non violent protest went on with African-Americans protesting against inequality. The protest finally bore fruits after six months when the white city officials granted the rights to African Americas to be served in a restaurant without giving preference to the whites (Digital rights para. 7). The protests on lunch counter sit-ins spread to other cities across the southern states. For instance, in North Carolina, some storekeeper unscrewed their lunch counters while in states such as Alabama, Virginia, seats were roped-off to ensure that no one was given a preferential treatment. All the customers had t o stand upon being served with food. African- Americans Students resorted to attacking those libraries, lunch counters, and other public facilities such as beaches that were segregated and a preserve for the whites. In pursuit of their rights, 142 student leaders formed a student Nonviolent coordinating committee, which would enable them fight and demand for equality. Rev. Luther King motivated them and encouraged them to stand up and be ready to be taken into jail in their pursuit to awaken the dozing conscience of whites. These sit-ins resulted to wade-ins in beaches that were segregated. By the end of 1960 more than 70,000 people had participated in the sit-ins in more than 100 countries and 20 states with police arresting more than 3600 protestors. Furthermore, almost 187 students were expelled from their learning institutions for participating in the sit-ins (Digital rights para. 8). However, these protest bore fruits as most of the counters were integrated hence helping in bre aching the gap between the whites and the African-Americans. Right to vote African-Americans in the early 1960s were prohibited to vote. This fundamental right was denied to them making them to be non partisans in the politics of the US. They could not therefore, demand for the respect of their rights because they could not vote. However, the enactment of the 1964 civil rights that prohibited discrimination in public accommodations and employment provided a relief.Advertising Looking for essay on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Nevertheless, prior to the enactment of the act, this fundamental constitutional right to vote was not provided to the African-Americans (Clayborne, para. 4). For instance, in state of Alabama, eligible voters were required to provide written answerers to a 20 paged test on the state government and constitution. Some of the questions that were asked during these tests included giving reasons to why presidential electors cast ballots for their presidents and many other questions of such caliber. These laws were intended to restrict the African-American voters from participating in the elections through intimidating them indirectly. Therefore, the whites made it difficult for the African-Americans to votes in the general elections Martin Luther king was instrumental in bringing the issue of voting rights to national attention when he decided to launch a voter registration drive in Selam, Alabama in 1965. In Selam city the number of blacks outnumbered those of whites but surprisingly t he roles related to voting were assigned to the whites. 99 percent of roles were reserved for whites with only 1 percent being taken up by the blacks. Luther led his black counterparts to the county courtroom for registration. But their quest was halted after an approximate 2,000 black demonstrators were arrested together with king (Clayborne, para. 6). However, upon the ruling by the federal court not to interfere in registration, James Clark ordered the African-Americans to stand on a line for five hours before taking a test. At the end of the day, not even a name of a single black was added in the registration rolls. Protest matches went on and when four Ku Klux Klan members killed a 39 old white civil rights volunteer, the president, Johnson expressed nation’s anger and shock marking the journey to change (Digital rights para. 5). Two measures were adopted in 1965, which were aimed at helping in safeguarding the rights of black Americans. 24th amendment was ratified by th e state on 23 January to bar any poll tax in the federal elections. Five southern states had poll taxes in their systems of governance. Secondly, the signing of voting right by the president on 6 August prohibiting literacy tests and instructing federal examiners to seven states to begin registration of black voters helped in boosting African-American registered voters. The number reached 450,000 in the southern states within a year. Conclusion In conclusion, 1960s was a transformation or transition period for the African-American citizens. They had suffered all forms of discrimination and through their undeterred efforts and determination, they managed to fight and reclaim their rightful place in the American community. The African-Americans were discriminated in terms access to schools, services, voting rights but through their devotion, they finally managed to be granted their rights. Works Cited Clayborne, Carson. African – American leadership and mass mobilization, 1994. Web. Digital rights. America in Ferment: The Tumultuous 1960s: Voting rights. Web. Digital rights. America in Ferment: The Tumultuous 1960s: The State of Black America in 1960. Web. Murphiee, Vanessa. Black Power: Public Relations and Social Change in the 1960s.  American Journalism, 21.3 (2004): 13-32. This essay on African-Americans in the 1960s was written and submitted by user Leighton Shaw to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. African